HISTORY OF EUROPE What we know today as Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies and cantons whose rulers had their autonomous territories. Eastern and Central Europe wer
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THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE NEW MIDDLE CLASS Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that c
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WHAT DID LIBERAL NATIONALISM STAND FOR? Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of liberalism. The term ‘liberalism’ derives from
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A NEW CONSERVATISM AFTER 1815 Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism. Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutio
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THE REVOLUTIONARIES During the years following 1815, the fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists undergrounds. Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries
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